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Cnidaria

Photos

Photo Gallery

Paraconularia sp.

Patacamaya, Patacamaya Municipality, Aroma Province, La Paz, Bolivia

Paracunnolites sp.

Collades de Basturs, Isona i Conca Dellà, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Paracunnolites sp.

Collades de Basturs, Isona i Conca Dellà, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Paraconularia sp.

Patacamaya, Patacamaya Municipality, Aroma Province, La Paz, Bolivia

Paracunnolites sp.

Collades de Basturs, Isona i Conca Dellà, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Paracunnolites sp.

Collades de Basturs, Isona i Conca Dellà, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Paraconularia sp.

Patacamaya, Patacamaya Municipality, Aroma Province, La Paz, Bolivia

Paracunnolites sp.

Collades de Basturs, Isona i Conca Dellà, El Pallars Jussà, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain

Description

Cnidaria is a phylum under Kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic (freshwater and marine) environments: they are predominantly marine.

From Wikipedia article at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.

Source Data

Source	ID	Link
Global Biodiversity Information Facility ID (GBIF)	43	https://www.gbif.org/species/43
PaleoBioDB ID (PBDB)	4524	https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=4524

Rank

phylum

Taxonomy (GBIF,PBDB)

Life : Animalia : Cnidaria

Taxonomic Status (GBIF)

accepted

Classification
(PBDB,GBIF)

Rank	Name	Author
-	Eukaryota
-	Opisthokonta	Cavalier-Smith 1987
kingdom	Animalia
phylum	Cnidaria	Hatschek 1888

Scientific Name

Cnidaria

Opinions (PBDB)

Name	Rank	Opinion	Evidence	Author
Cnidaria	subphylum	belongs to Coelenterata	stated without evidence	Squires, 1984
Cnidaria	phylum	belongs to Epitheliozoa	stated without evidence	Zrzavy et al., 1998
Cnidaria	phylum	belongs to Metazoa	second hand	Sepkoski, 2002
Cnidaria	phylum	belongs to Metazoa	stated without evidence	Edgecombe et al., 2011
Cnidaria	phylum	belongs to Neuralia	stated without evidence	Nielsen, 2012
Cnidaria	phylum	belongs to Metazoa	stated with evidence	Pacheco et al., 2015

Status (PBDB)

extant

Taxon Size (PBDB)

10,352

Extant Size (PBDB)

845 (8.2%)

First Recorded Appearance

635 - 580 Ma
Neoproterozoic

Primary Reference (PBDB)

J. J. Sepkoski, Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera. Bulletins of American Paleontology 363:1-560

Common Name(s)

Nässeldjur, Cnidarians, Coelenterates, Cnidaires, Coelentérés, Anêmona, Caravela, Cnidario, Coral, Hidra, água Viva, Cnidarien, Coelenteraten, Hohltiere, Nesseltiere, Hydroids, Jellyfish, Neteldieren, 刺胞動物

Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria

External Images

Fossil Distribution

Subtaxa

Name	Status	Common Name(s)	Fossil Occurrences	Oldest	Youngest
Medusozoa subphylum	listed (PBDB)		526	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	0 Ma Extant
Anthozoa class	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		64,505	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	0 Ma Extant
Conulata ✝ class	listed (PBDB)		40	541 Ma Cambrian	530 Ma Cambrian
Cubozoa class	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Box Jellyfish	1	513 Ma Cambrian	0 Ma Extant
Cyclozoa class	listed (PBDB)		18	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	501 Ma Cambrian
Hydroconozoa class	listed (PBDB)		13	520 Ma Cambrian	516 Ma Cambrian
Hydrozoa class	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		467	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	0 Ma Extant
Medusae class	listed (PBDB)		29	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	513 Ma Cambrian
Scyphozoa class	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)	Jellyfish	517	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	0 Ma Extant
Staurozoa class	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Erniettamorpha ✝ order	listed (PBDB)		19	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Bonatiidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Brooksellidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cloudinidae family	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		31	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	507 Ma Cambrian
Cryptolichenariidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dasyconidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Gastroconidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Hexactinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Hiemaloriidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Hydroconidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mawsonitidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Olivooidae ✝ family	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	541 Ma Cambrian	541 Ma Cambrian
Ormieractinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Saccosporidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Sphaeractinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Synactinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Tetractinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Triactinomyxidae family	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Acanthocladium genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Actinoseris genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Allotrophiophyllum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Amblophyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Andenipora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Anicella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Antiguastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Aplosastrea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Archaeocyathellus genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Armillifera genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Arumberia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Aspidella ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		77	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	520 Ma Cambrian
Auricoma genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Ausia ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Axophyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Barycora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Bergaueria genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Blackbrookia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Boarella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Bonata genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Bosnopsammia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Bovella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Brachiolophus genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Bronicella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Brooksella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Busella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Calamosmilia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cambroctoconus genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cambromedusa genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Campanella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Carantoseris genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cenomanosmilia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Centrastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Chondroplon genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Chorisastrea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Coenastrea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cordilites ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		2	86.3 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous	72.1 Ma Late/Upper Cretaceous
Cordubia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cramborhiza genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Crassitubus ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Cyathophoropsis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cyathopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cyclocoenia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cyclogorgia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Cyclophylla genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dactylacis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dactylastrea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Delphinastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dendrogorgia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dendrostroma genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Dickinsonia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Diploastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Drymopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Duodecimedusina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Enallastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Episeris genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Escumasia ✝ genus	doubtful (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Eucrambessa genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Favastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Floscula genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Geoporites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Glyphephyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Gonigoria genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Gonomeandrus genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Graptopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Hallidaya genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Haloikema genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Haootia ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		2	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Harmodites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Helladastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Hiemalora ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		19	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Hymenophyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Ichnusa genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Isaura genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Isocora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Kentlandia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Kiaerophyllum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Kirklandia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Kuibisia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Lasmogyra genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Lasmophyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Leonura genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Leptopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Leptoptilum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Liaoningia ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Lobocoenia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Lonsdalia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Lophoctenium genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Medusina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Medusinites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Meganema genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Melanofurcata ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Melanosteus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Melanostylus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Melusina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mesophylloides genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mesophyllum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Mialsemia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Microptilum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Microseris genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Microstizia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Moyerolites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Muritella genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Nadalina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Namacalathus ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		7	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	541 Ma Cambrian
Nasepia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Nectopilema genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Nettelrothia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Nimbia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Octocoenia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pachysammia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Palaeoscia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Paramphipora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pavonaria genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pericrypta genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Peripalma genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Perismilia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Petaloptyon genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pholidophyllum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Phyllastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Phyllozoon genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Placocaeniopsis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Placoseris genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Planomedusites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Polypothecia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Polystephanastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Priodon genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Priscapennamarina ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Prismostylus genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Procharagma genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Procharybdis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Protovirgularia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pseudechinogorgia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pseudorhizostomites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pseudostylina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Psilacabaria genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pteromorpha genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Quadratitubus ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		1	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Ramellina ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Ramitubus ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)		2	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Rhabdopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Rhaphidopora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Rugoconites genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Septastraeopsis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Shepshedia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Sinocyclocyclicus ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	635 Ma Neoproterozoic	635 Ma Neoproterozoic
Smithia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Soricimyxum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Spatangopsis ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		3	520 Ma Cambrian	520 Ma Cambrian
Staurinidia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Stephanastraea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Stephanoptilum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Stylaxis genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Stylidophyllum genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Stylocora genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Swartpuntia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Syringophyllum ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		1	433 Ma Silurian	433 Ma Silurian
Tessera genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Thalamospongia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Thamnobeatricea genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Thecophyllia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Tiernavia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Tremocoenia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Trismilia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Ubaghsia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Vauzutsubua ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)
Veprina genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Verrillia genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Windermeria genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Xianguangia ✝ genus	listed (PBDB)		2	520 Ma Cambrian	520 Ma Cambrian
Zolotytsia ✝ genus	accepted (GBIF) listed (PBDB)
Zonephyra genus	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Carnegiea bassleri species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Chaetetes columnaris species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Columnaria alveolata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Columnaria disjuncta species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Columnaria helderbergiae species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Columnaria parvituba species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Columnaria thomii species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Denaphyllum denayensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Disticophyllia melnikovae species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Entelophylloides occidentalis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Eridopora radiata species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Lyellia thebesensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Myriohyllia borrachensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Paleophyllum gracile species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Paleophyllum margaretae species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Propora lambei species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Propora nordica species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Protarea richmondensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Prychophyllum infundibulum species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Pycnopora ovatipora species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Thamnastrea borealis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Thecosmillia cumanensis species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Tubulipora macnairi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Wintanastraea stanleyi species	accepted (GBIF)	No associated record in PBDB
Myxozoa unranked clade	listed (PBDB)

Synonymy List

Year	Name and Author
1888	Cnidaria Hatschek
1984	Cnidaria Squires p. 14
1987	Cnidaria Squires p. 19
1998	Cnidaria Zrzavy et al.
2002	Cnidaria Sepkoski, Jr.
2011	Cnidaria Edgecombe et al. p. 153 figs. Fig. 1
2012	Cnidaria Nielsen p. 45 figs. Fig. 4.2
2015	Cnidaria Pacheco et al. p. 14

References

Sepkoski, Jr. J. J. (2002) A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, Bulletins of American Paleontology 363, 1-560

Squires R. L. (1984) Megapaleontology of the Eocene Llajas Formation, Simi Valley, California, Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 350, 1-76

Squires R. L. (1987) Eocene molluscan paleontology of the Whitaker Peak area, Los Angeles and Ventura counties, California, Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 388, 1-93

Zrzavy J., Mihulka S., et al (1998) Phylogeny of the Metazoa based on morphological and 18S ribosomal DNA evidence, Cladistics 14, 249-285

Edgecombe G. D., Giribet G., et al (2011) Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress and remaining questions, Organisms Diversity & Evolution 11 2, 151-172 doi:10.1007/s13127-011-0044-4

Nielsen C. (2012) Animal Evolution : Interrelationships of the Living Phyla, 1-402

Pacheco M. L. A.F., Galante D., et al (2015) Insights into the skeletonization, lifestyle, and affinity of the unusual Ediacaran fossil Corumbella, PLoS One 10 3, e0114219

Gärdenfors, Ulf, Hall, Ragnar, Hallingbäck, Tomas, Hansson, Hans G. & Hedström, Lars (2003) Djur, svampar och växter i Sverige 2003. Förteckning över antal arter per familj. ArtDatabanken Rapporterar 5, ArtDatabanken, Uppsala. (reviderad excelfil med svenska djurfamiljer). - via Dyntaxa. Svensk taxonomisk databas

Cairns, Stephen D., 1999: Species richness of recent Scleractinia. Atoll Research Bulletin, no. 59. 1-46. - via Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)

Cairns, Stephen D., Dale R. Calder, Anita Brinckmann-Voss, Clovis B. Castro, Daphne G. Fautin,..., 2002: Common and Scientific Names of Aquatic Invertebrates from the United States and Canada: Cnidaria and Ctenophora, Second Edition, 2002. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 28. xi + 115. - via Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)

Brusca, Richard C., and Gary J. Brusca, 1990: null. Invertebrates. xiii + 992. - via Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)

Moore, Raymond C., 1956: null. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part F: Coelenterata. xx + F1-F498. - via Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)

Daly, M., M.R. Brugler, P. Cartwright, A.G. Collins, M.N. Dawson, D.G. Fautin, S.C. France, C.S. McFadden, D.M. Opresko, E. Rodriquez, S.L. Romano, J.L. Stake. (2007). The phylum Cnidaria: A review of phylogenetic patterns and diversity 300 years after Linnaeus. Zootaxa. (1668): 127-182. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Howson, C.M.; Picton, B.E. (1997). The species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the British Isles and surrounding seas. Ulster Museum Publication, 276. The Ulster Museum: Belfast, UK. ISBN 0-948150-06-8. vi, 508 (+ cd-rom) pp. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Margulis, L.; Schwartz, K.V. (1998). Five Kingdoms: an illustrated guide to the Phyla of life on earth. 3rd edition. Freeman: New York, NY (USA). ISBN 0-7167-3027-8. xx, 520 pp. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Verrill, A. E. (1866). On the Polyps and Echinoderms of New England, with Descriptions of new species. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. 10: 333-375. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

web search (AJR) - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Gegenbaur, C. (1857). Versuch eines Systems der Medusen, mit Beschreibung neuer oder wenig gekannter Formen; zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fauna des Mittelmeeres. Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie. Leipzig 8: 202-273, pls 7-9. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Götte, A. (1887). Entwickelungsgeschichte der Aurelia aurita und Cotylorhiza tuberculata. Abhandlungen zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tiere. 4, 1–79; 9 plates. - via World Register of Introduced Marine Species (WRiMS)

Ruggiero, M. A.; Gordon, D. P.; Orrell, T. M.; Bailly, N.; Bourgoin, T.; Brusca, R. C.; Cavalier-Smith, T.; Guiry, M. D.; Kirk, P. M. (2015). A higher level classification of all living organisms. PLOS ONE. 10(4): e0119248. - via The Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera

Data courtesy of: PBDB: The Paleobiology Database, Creative Commons CC-BY licenced. , GBIF: the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, various licences, iDigBio, various licences, and EOL: The Encyclopedia of Life (Open Data Public Domain). Because fossils are made of minerals too!

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